Nikon Z 24-70mm f/4 SZ-mount FX Mirrorless LensSample Images Intro Format & Compatibility Specifications USA Version Performance Z9 Z8 Z7 II Z6 II Zf Z7 Z6 Z5 Z fc Z50 Z30 Z System Z Lenses All Nikon Lenses Flash Nikon Z 24-70mm f/4 S (Full-frame, 72mm filters, 17.5 oz./496g, 1'/0.3m close focus, $997 or about $375 used if you know How to Win at eBay). bigger. I got mine from Adorama. I'd also get it from Amazon, from B&H or from Crutchfield, or used at eBay. This junk-free website's biggest source of support is when you use those or any of these links to my personally-approved sources when you get anything, regardless of the country in which you live. Nikon does not seal its boxes in any way, so never buy at retail or any other source not on my personally approved list since you'll have no way of knowing if you're missing accessories, getting a defective, damaged, returned, non-USA, store demo or used lens. Get yours only from the approved sources I use myself for the best prices, service, return policies and selection. Thanks for helping me help you! Ken.
December 2022 Nikon Mirrorless Mirrorless Lenses All Nikon Lenses Nikon Flash All Reviews Sample Images(More throughout the review) These are all shot as BASIC JPGs; no RAW files, NORMAL or FINE JPGs were used or needed. Christmas Lights, 14 December 2018, 7:30 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/8 at Auto ISO 500, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger, full-resolution or camera-original © file. Remember that shot wide-open at f/4 that only some things are in focus. Super-sharp hand-held at 1/8!
Santa and His Truck, 14 December 2018, 7:01 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 33mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/8 at Auto ISO 320, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger, full-resolution or camera-original © file. Remember that shot wide-open at f/4 that only some things are in focus. In-camera stabilization works great hand-held at 1/8!
Desert Moonrise, 21 November 2018, 7:30 P.M. Insanely overprocessed image from Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 28mm, f/4.5 at 30 seconds at ISO 64, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger or full-resolution.
Red and Blue Window, October 2018, 6:29 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 37mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/40 at Auto ISO 1,100, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger.
Bridgeport Inn at Night, October 2018, 7:59 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/4 at 1/25 hand-held at Auto ISO 1,250, Snapseed and Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger.
Bridgeport Shop Window at Night, October 2018, 8:01 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 32mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/30 at Auto ISO 18,000, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger.
Bridgeport Hotel at Night, October 2018, 8:01 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/25 at Auto ISO 2,500, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger.
Rooms 14 and 15, October 2018, 8:04 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/25 at Auto ISO 800, Perfectly Clear v3.6. split-toned print. bigger.
Dark Church, October 2018, 2:16 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/25 at Auto ISO 140, Perfectly Clear v3.6. split-toned print. bigger.
Death's Workshop, October 2018, 2:42 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/8 hand-held at 1/4 at Auto ISO 64, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger.
Antique Firefighting Gear, 2:51 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/8 hand-held at 1/8 at Auto ISO 200, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger or camera-original © JPG file.
Inside the Scary House, October 2018, 3:01 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/16 hand-held at 1 second at ISO 200, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger, full-resolution or camera-original © JPG file.
Weird Wood, October 2018, 3:21 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 41mm, f/8 hand-held at 1/30 at Auto ISO 64, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger or full-resolution.
Silver Maple Motel, October 2018, 6:34 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/6 at Auto ISO 200, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger.
Silver Maple Motel Office, October 2018, 6:35 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 48mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/13 at Auto ISO 200, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger.
Red Neon Roof, October 2018, 6:41 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 44mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/10 at ISO 200, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger.
Backlit Tree with Sunstar in Stoneman Meadow, Yosemite Valley, October 2018, 11:36 A.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 30mm, f/14 hand-held at 1/13 at Auto ISO 64, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger or full-resolution.
Red Maple, Yosemite Valley, October 2018, 12:19 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 70mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/200 at Auto ISO 64, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger or full-resolution.
El Capitan, Yosemite Valley, October 2018, 2:32 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 28mm, f/8 at 1/250 at Auto ISO 64, Perfectly Clear v3.6.bigger, full-resolution or camera-original © JPG file.
Top of a Fence Post, Happy Isles, Yosemite Valley, October 2018, 12:26 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 30mm, f/6.3 hand-held at 1/30 at Auto ISO 400, Perfectly Clear v3.6. split-toned print. bigger.
The Great Room at The Ahwahnee, October 2018, 1:15 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 24mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/2 second at Auto ISO 100, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger or full-resolution.
Orange Triangle, October 2018, 4:03 P.M. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 70mm, f/5.6 at 1/500 at Auto ISO 64, Perfectly Clear v3.6. bigger or camera-original © JPG file.
IntroductionThe Nikon Z 24-70mm f/4 S is a compact high-performance ultra-ultra sharp lens for Nikon's new full-frame mirrorless cameras. This new Z lens has an electronic diaphragm for quiet operation and is designed also for shooting video, with little to no focus breathing (no change in image size as focused). Nikon claims it's dust and drip resistant. New is that the control ring is programmable. It defaults to Manual Focus, or make it control aperture or exposure compensation if you prefer. I got my Z 24-70/4 at Adorama. I'd also get it from Amazon, from B&H or from Crutchfield, or used at eBay if you know How to Win at eBay.
NewNikon's first zoom for their new full-frame mirrorless cameras.
GoodUltra-ultra sharp at every setting. The focus ring provides instant manual-focus override by default, or can be set to control Aperture, Exposure Compensation or ISO — or be disabled entirely — at Z7/Z6 MENU > CUSTOM SETTING MENU (pencil icon) > f Controls > f2 Custom control assignment > click right and down to Lens Control Ring > and chose what you want it to do: Focus, Aperture, Exposure Compensation, ISO or NONE. Collapses for easy carrying with an easy twist. Small and light. No distortion as shot on Nikon's full-frame mirrorless cameras.
Bad$997 rather than $349. Almost all plastic, but that keeps it lightweight.
MissingNo VR. No VR switch (for in-camera VR). No focus distance scale. Nikon Z 24-70mm f/4 S. bigger.
Format & CompatibilityI got my Z 24-70/4 at Adorama. I'd also get it from Amazon, from B&H or from Crutchfield, or used at eBay if you know How to Win at eBay. This is a full-frame lens which works only on Nikon's Z-series mirrorless cameras. It does not so much as even mount on any other camera.
Nikon Z7 and Nikon Z 24-70mm f/4 S. bigger.
SpecificationsI got my Z 24-70/4 at Adorama. I'd also get it from Amazon, from B&H or from Crutchfield, or used at eBay if you know How to Win at eBay.
NameNikon Z 24-70mm f/4 S. bigger.
Nikon calls this the Nikon NIKKOR Z 24-70mm f/4 S: NIKKOR: Nikon's brand name for all their lenses. Z: For Nikon's mirrorless cameras. S: Subliminally suggests sexual satisfaction. It has no other meaning; Nikon and car and every kind of marketer have been using letters like "S" and "X" in model numbers since the 1940s for this same reason for just about everything.
Also has: E: Electronic diaphragm for silent operation. AF-P: Stepper (Pulse) autofocus motor: silent and ultra fast. D: Couples distance information to the 3D Matrix Meter. ED: Magic Extra-low Dispersion glass for reduced secondary chromatic aberration. IF: Internal focusing; nothing moves externally as focused. Aspherical: Specially curved glass elements for sharper pictures. Nano Crystal Coat (N): Magic anti-reflection coating that has a variable index of refraction that's far more effective against ghosts and internal reflections than traditional multicoating. ∅72: 72mm filter thread.
OpticsNikon 24-70/4 internal optical construction. Aspherical, ED and Aspherical ED elements. 14 elements in 11 groups. 2 ED extra-low dispersion elements, one of which is also aspherical. These help reduce secondary axial chromatic aberration. 4 aspherical elements, of which one is also ED. Nikon Super Integrated multicoating (SIC). Fluorine front coating to resist dirt and smudges. Nano Crystal Coat,
Coverage
DiaphragmNikon Z 24-70mm f/4 S. bigger. 7 rounded blades. Electronically actuated. Stops down to f/22.
Angle of View34.3º ~ 84º diagonal on FX. (22.5º ~ 61º diagonal on DX.)
AutofocusInternal focus. No external movement as focused, so no air or dust is sucked in. Silent stepper motor.
Focus ScaleNo.
Infinity Focus StopNo.
Depth of Field ScaleNo.
Reproduction Ratio ScaleNo. Infrared Focus IndexNo.
Close Focus1 foot (0.3 meters).
Maximum Reproduction Ratio1:3.3 (0.3×).
ControlsNikon Z 24-70mm f/4 S. bigger.
Image StabilizerRated 5 stops improvement when used with the Nikon Z cameras. The lens itself has no internal stabilizers.
CapsLC-72B 72 mm snap-on front cap, included. LF-N1 Z-mount rear cap, included.
Filters72 mm × 0.75mm pitch standard filter thread.
HoodNikon HB-85 hood for 24-70mm f/4. bigger. HB-85 bayonet hood, included.
CaseCL-C1 slipcase.
Size3.05" maximum diameter × 3.48" extension from flange. 77.5 mm maximum diameter × 88.5 mm extension from flange.
Weight17.500 oz. (496.1g), actual measured. Rated 17.7 oz. (500 g).
Announced12:09 AM, Thursday, 23 August 2018, NYC time.
Promised for & Shipping Since27 September 2018.
IncludedLC-72B 72 mm snap-on front cap. LF-N1 Z-mount rear cap. HB-85 bayonet hood. CL-C1 bag-style case.
Nikon's Model Number20072.
Price, U. S. A. specifications topDecember 2022$997 at Adorama, at Amazon, at B&H and at Crutchfield. About $375 used at eBay if you know How to Win at eBay.
July 2021$997 at Adorama, at Amazon, at B&H and at Crutchfield. About $490 used at eBay if you know How to Win at eBay.
August 2018 ~ October 2020$997 at Adorama, at Amazon, at B&H and at Crutchfield.
Getting a Legal USA VersionThis section applies in the USA only. I got my USA version 24-70 from Adorama. I'd also get it from Amazon, from B&H or from Crutchfield. I got my lens back in 2019 when Nikon used to include 5 year warranties. As of 2021 we only get one year in the USA so the card is a bit different, but must say UNITED STATES: Nikon Z 24-70mm S USA warranty card. bigger. And just as importantly be sure that the serial number (as well as the model) match the serial number on the bottom of your lens exactly. If you don't have this card or the serial numbers don't match, you got ripped off with a gray market version from another country. (The serial number on the box doesn't have to match, but if it doesn't it means you bought from a shady dealer who took lenses out of boxes and then resold them as new.) This is why I never buy anyplace other than from my personally approved sources. You just can't take the chance of buying elsewhere, especially at any retail store, because non-USA versions have no warranty in the USA, and you won't even be able to get firmware or service for it — even if you're willing to pay out-of-pocket for it when you need it! Nikon USA enforces its trademarks strictly. It's unlikely, but possible that US customs won't let your camera back in the country if you bought a gray-market version in the USA, carried it overseas, and try to bring it back in. (If you take the chance of buying one overseas, be sure you have a receipt to prove you bought it overseas and be prepared to pay duty on it.) If a gray market version saves you $300 it may be worth it, but for $200 or less I wouldn't risk having no warranty or support. Get yours from the same places I do and you won't have a problem, but if you take the risk of getting yours elsewhere, be sure to check everything while you still can return it.
Performance
Overall Autofocus Manual Focus Breathing Bokeh Distortion Ergonomics Eyeblow Falloff Filters Flare & Ghosts Lateral Color Fringes Spherochromatism Stabilization Sunstars
I got my Z 24-70/4 at Adorama. I'd also get it from Amazon, from B&H or from Crutchfield, or used at eBay if you know How to Win at eBay.
OverallThe 24-70 is essentially optically perfect, as well as being ultralight. It's the perfect general-purpose mirrorless lens, even if it zooms no longer than 70mm.
AutofocusAutofocus is as fast as every other modern lens, and its stepper autofocus motor is silent from more than a few inches away. If it's quiet and you listen very carefully you can hear a very slight whine as it works.
Manual FocusManual focus is easy. Just grab the electronic focus ring at any time for instant manual-focus override. It works very well, much better than Sony.
Focus BreathingFocus breathing is the image changing size as focused in and out. It's important to cinematographers because it looks funny if the image changes size as focus gets pulled back and forth between actors. If the lens does this, the image "breathes" by growing and contracting slightly as the dialog goes back and forth. There is only slight breathing in this 24-70mm. At 70mm the image gets slightly smaller as focused more closely.
BokehOrange and Blue, 16 December 2018, 12:16 PM. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z set to 70mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/8 at Auto ISO 100, as shot. bigger or camera-original © JPG file. Bokeh, the feel or quality of out-of-focus areas as opposed to how far out of focus they are, is neutral. As only an f/4 lens that can't get past 70mm there isn't often much out of focus, so the character of the bokeh doesn't matter much. Davis 6250 weather station, January 2019. bigger or camera-original © file.
Davis 6250 weather station, January 2019. bigger or camera-original © file. As always, if you want to throw the background as far out of focus as possible, shoot at 70mm at f/4 and get as close as possible.
DistortionThe Nikon 24~70mm f/4 Z has no visible distortion, as shot on the Nikon Z7 which corrects it by default and doesn't allow us to deactivate this correction.
© 2019 KenRockwell.com. All rights reserved.
Ergonomics
Other than the always plasticy feel, ergonomics are great. Half the lens is the zoom ring. Rotate it to the dot to collapse, and rotate it back to ready it for use. There is a detent at the dot, no interlocks needed. The focus ring is electronic. It slides with a fingertip.
EyeblowThe 24~70mm sucks air out of the back of the lens as zoomed, but I've never felt this through an eyepiece. It will suck-in dust over time.
FalloffFalloff on FX invisible in actual shooting with Nikon's default Vignette Correction left at NORMAL. It won't be an issue at all on DX (see crop factor). I've greatly exaggerated the falloff by shooting a gray field and placing these on a gray background; it will not look this bad in actual photos of real things:
Turn off Vignetting Control, and we get a little more, but it's still minimal except wide-open at the ends of the zoom range:
Filters, use withThere's no need for thin filters. I can use two stacked standard filters on full-frame at 24mm with no vignetting. I can stack four standard filters with no vignetting so long as I don't zoom much wider than 35mm. Go ahead and use your standard rotating polarizer and grad filters.
Flare & GhostsThere are only a couple of minimal ghosts if you let the sun shine in the side of the lens from outside the picture area. Otherwise there's not much else to see or say here, it's not 1969 anymore. There are few to no ghosts or flare in this lens.
Lateral Color FringesThere are no color fringes as shot on Nikon cameras, which by default correct for any that may be there.
Macro PerformanceMacro gets very close, and it's ultra-sharp, even wide-open: Casio G-Shock Solar Atomic Watch, January 2019. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 at 70mm at f/4 at close-focus distance. bigger or camera-original © file.
1,200 × 900 pixel crop from above. bigger or camera-original © file. The texture you're seeing is on the watch face. As with all lenses at macro distances there is no depth-of-field, so the hands are supposed to be out of focus as are half the things on the watch face. If this is about 6" (15cm) wide on your screen, the complete image would print at a huge 27½″ × 41¼″ (70 × 105 cm) at this same high magnification. If this is about 12" (30cm) wide on your screen, the complete image would print at a mammoth 55 × 82½″ (1.4 × 2.1 meters) at this same extremely high magnification!
Mechanical QualityNikon Z 24-70mm f/4 S. bigger. The 24-70 is a mostly plastic lens with some metal trim and a metal mount.
HoodPlastic bayonet.
Front BumperNone.
Filter ThreadsPlastic.
Hood Bayonet MountPlastic.
Two Front BarrelsPlastic.
Zoom RingRubber-covered plastic.
Mid Barrel ExteriorSection between zoom and focus rings: plastic.
Focus RingMetal.
Rear Barrel ExteriorMetal trim.
AF/MF Slide SwitchPlastic.
IdentityPrinted around front of lens, also printed on top of barrel.
InternalsLooks and feels like all plastic, although the zoom sleeve may be metal.
Dust Gasket at MountYes.
MountDull chromed metal.
MarkingsEngraved and filled with paint.
Serial NumberLaser engraved in bottom of lens barrel.
Date CodeNone found.
Noises When ShakenModerate rattling.
Made inThailand.
SharpnessLens sharpness has nothing to do with picture sharpness; every lens made in the past 100 years is more than sharp enough to make super-sharp pictures if you know what you're doing. The only limitation to picture sharpness is your skill as a photographer. It's the least talented who spend the most time worrying about lens sharpness. Skilled photographers make great images with whatever camera is in their hands; I've made some of my best images of all time with an irreparably broken camera! Most pixels are thrown away before you see them, but camera makers don't want you to know that. If you're not getting ultra-sharp pictures with this, be sure not to shoot at f/11 or smaller where all lenses are softer due to diffraction, always shoot at ISO 100 because cameras become softer at ISO 200 and above, be sure everything is in perfect focus, set your camera's sharpening as you want it (I set mine to the maximum) and be sure nothing is moving, either camera or subject. If you want to ensure a soft image with any lens, shoot at f/16 at ISO 1,600 at default sharpening in daylight of rapidly moving subjects at differing distances. These caveats aside, this 24-70 is ultra-ultra sharp, especially wide-open at f/4 where lenses are at their softest. Here's a 45 megapixel shot wide-open at f/4, and as the camera-original JPG shows, it's ultra-sharp from corner to corner — and it gets sharper as stopped down until you hit the diffraction limit. You can't ask for better performance than this: Silver Lake, Eastern Sierra, 10:37 AM 17 October 2018. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z at 26.5mm, f/4 at 1/320 at Auto ISO 64, exactly as shot. bigger or camera-original © 45MP FINE JPG file.
Nikon's MTF data agrees that it's super sharp: Nikon's MTF chart at 24mm at 10 cyc/mm and 30 cyc/mm.
Nikon's MTF chart at 70mm at 10 cyc/mm and 30 cyc/mm.
SpherochromatismSpherochromatism, also called "color bokeh" by laymen, is an advanced form of chromatic aberration in a different dimension than lateral color. It can cause colored fringes on out-of-focus highlights, usually seen as green fringes on backgrounds and magenta fringes on foregrounds. Spherochromatism is common in fast lenses of moderate focal length when shooting contrasty items at full aperture. It goes away as stopped down. I can see only the very faintest spherochromatism in this lens, and only if I go out of my way to see it.
Image StabilizationWhile this lens has no Image Stabilization (IS or Vibration Reduction (VR)) of its own, it only works on Nikon's Z cameras, which have their own stabilization designed to work in concert with this lens. I easily get sharp 45MP images hand-held at all focal lengths at 1/8 of a second with the Z7's great VR, no tripods needed! It works great at 1/4 second at the wide end. The combination of camera and lens works great; I can hand-hold at a quarter of a second and consistently get ultra tripod-equivalent sharpness. Bravo, Nikon!
In-Camera VR ON"Percent Perfectly Sharp Shots" are the percentage of frames with 100% perfect tripod-equivalent sharpness. Hand tremor is a random occurrence, so at marginal speeds some frames will be perfectly sharp with others in various stages of blur — all at the same shutter speed. This rates how many shots are perfectly sharp, not how sharp all the frames are.
In-Camera VR OFF
This shows that the Z7 adds abotu 2½ stops of real improvement. Mercedes AMG GLE 63S Coupe, 14 December 2018, 4:51 PM. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z set to 49mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/8 at Auto ISO 250, Perfectly Clear. bigger, full-resolution file or camera-original unprocessed © JPG file.
Mercedes AMG GLE 63S Coupe, 14 December 2018, 4:52 PM. Nikon Z7, Nikon 24-70mm f/4 Z set to 52mm, f/4 hand-held at 1/8 at Auto ISO 280, Perfectly Clear. bigger, full-resolution file or camera-original unprocessed © JPG file.
SunstarsIts 7-blade rounded diaphragm makes soft 14-pointed sunstars even wide-open, and they get sharper as stopped down Click any to enlarge: Click any to enlarge.
ComparedI got my Z 24-70/4 at Adorama. I'd also get it from Amazon, from B&H or from Crutchfield, or used at eBay if you know How to Win at eBay. See All Nikon Z Midrange Zooms Compared. This Z-system dedicated lens is both sharper and focuses better on Nikon's Z cameras than an older SLR lens on the FTZ Adapter. You could consider an FTZ Adapter and any other Nikon zoom, like the excellent 24-85mm VR. This will save you money, especially since I know you already have lenses, but probably won't give you the performance for which you bought your new mirrorless camera in the first place.
RecommendationsI got my Z 24-70/4 at Adorama. I'd also get it from Amazon, from B&H or from Crutchfield, or used at eBay if you know How to Win at eBay. This is a great little zoom for Nikon's Z System, and the only one as I write this. It's tiny and optically excellent, so it's the best lens you can get for you Nikon Z now. I'd not bother with an SLR lens on the FTZ, which is going to be bigger and have lower performance. If you're going to use a Z body, get the right lenses for it. I use a clear (UV) protective filter instead of a cap. I only use a cap when I throw this in my bag, otherwise I leave a clear protective filter on my lens at all times so I'm ready to shoot instantly. The very best protective filter is the 72mm Hoya multicoated HD3 UV which uses hardened glass and repels dirt and fingerprints. For less money, the B+W 72mm 010 is an excellent filter, as are the multicoated version and the basic multicoated Hoya filters, but the Hoya HD3 is the toughest and the best. Filters last a lifetime, so you may as well get the best. The Hoya HD3 stays cleaner than the others since it repels oil and dirt. This junk-free website's biggest source of support is when you use those or any of these links to approved sources when you get anything, regardless of the country in which you live. Nikon does not seal its boxes in any way, so never buy at retail or any other source not on my personally approved list since you'll have no way of knowing if you're missing accessories, getting a defective, damaged, returned, non-USA, store demo or used lens. I use the stores I do because they ship from secure remote warehouses where no one gets to touch your new camera before you do. Buy only from the approved sources I use myself for the best prices, service, return policies and selection. Thanks for helping me help you! Ken, Mrs. Rockwell, Ryan and Katie.
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